Edited
by: P. N. Pushp and K. Warikoo
Himalayan Research
and Cultural Foundation
Har-Anand Publications |
Language and Politics in Jammu and Kashmir:
Issues and Perspectives
- by K. Warikoo Language
is the most powerful means of communication, vehicle of expression of cultural
values and aspirations and instrument of conserving culture. As such language is
an important means to acquire and preserve identity of a particular group or
community. Language and culture are interrelated because the language regions
possess certain homogeneity of culture and are characterized by common traits in
history, folklore and literature. Among various cultural symbol-religion, race,
language, traditions and customs, etc. that differentiate an ethnic group from
the other, language is the most potent cultural marker providing for group
identity. Its spatial spread over a fixed territory makes language more
important than religion as a basis of ethnic identity formation.
In the emerging world order, when rise of ethno-
nationalism is posing a major challenge to the nation state, political assertion
of language or religious identities has assumed importance. However, events in
Pakistan which was established in 1947 as an Islamic state on the basis of
religious factor, have demonstrated the inherent conflict between language and
religious identities. It was the language variable that led to the break-up of
Pakistan in 1971 and the creation of a new independent nation- Bangladesh.
Bengali language proved to be more powerful an ethnic factor than common Muslim
identity. Similarly political manifestation of language rivalry has now gained
primacy in the ongoing ethnic conflicts between Sindhis, Punjabis, Saraikis,
Baluchis and Urdu speakers in Pakistan, even though all of them belong to the
Muslim umma. Ironically, it is religion rather than language that has been the
key motivating and mobilizing factor in the present secessionist movement in
Kashmir. Yet there have been frequent though vague references by the political
and intellectual elite to propose various solutions to the problems on the basis
of 'Kashmiriat'. Since language and particularly mother tongue forms the core of
this much publicized concept of 'Kashmiriat', this study has been undertaken to
analyse the complex dynamics of language and politics in the multi-lingual state
of Jammu and Kashmir. Often described as a three-storeyed edifice composed of
three geographical divisions of Jammu, Kashmir, Ladakh and Baltistan, bound
together by bonds of history and geography and linked together by a common
destiny, Jammu and Kashmir State presents a classic case of linguistic and
ethno- religious diversity.
Language Demography
An in-depth and objective study of the language
situation in Jammu and Kashmir State calls for an understanding of the language
demography of the State which would indicate the spatial distribution of various
linguistic groups and communities. This in turn reflects the variegated ethino
no- cultural mosaic of the State. The language and cultural areas are not only
correlated but are generally specific to a particular area (See Map at the end
of this chapter). For purposes of this study, J&K Census Reports of 1941,
1961, 1971 and 1981 have been relied upon. (No census has been carried out in
the State in 1951 and 1991). The population of various linguistic groups as
detailed in each of these Censuses, is given below in Tables 1 to 4.
Table 1
J&K: Major Linguistic Population Groups, 1941
Total Population of J&K (1941 Census)= 40,21,616
Language |
J&K state |
Kashmir Province |
Jammu Province |
Ladakh* |
Gilgit, Gilgit Agency, Astor etc |
Kashmiri |
15,49,460[1] |
13,69,537 |
1,78,390 |
1174 |
323 |
Punjabi (Dogri) |
10,75,273[2] |
73,473[3] |
10,00,018 |
453 |
1329 |
Rajasthani (Gujari)[4] |
2,83,741 |
92,392 |
1,87,980 |
Nil |
3369 |
Western Paharis [5] |
5,31,319 |
1,70,432[6] |
3,60,870[7] |
5 |
12 |
Hindustani[8] (Hindi & Urdu) |
1,78,528 |
10,631 |
1,67,368 |
22 |
507 |
Lahnda (Pothwari) |
82,993 |
8 |
82,975[9] |
5 |
5 |
Balti |
1,34,012 |
352 |
184 |
1,33,163 |
313 |
Ladakhi |
46,953 |
230 |
299 |
46,420 |
4 |
Shina (Dardi) |
84,604 |
7,888[10] |
114 |
13,562 |
63,040[11] |
Burushaski[12] |
33,132 |
3 |
Nil |
244 |
32,885 |
Tibetan |
503 |
26 |
145 |
317 |
15 |
* Before independence, Skardo/Baltistan (now in Palk-occupied
Kashmir/ Northern Areas) was a Tehsil of Ladakh District.
1. In the 1941 census, persons speaking Kishtwari
(11,170), Siraji (17,617), Rambani (1,202), Poguli (5,812) and Banjwahi (747),
totalling 36,548 persons have been included under the head Kashmiri.
2. Dogri has been taken as a dialect under Punjabi,
thereby enumerating 4,13,754 Punjabi speaking persons mainly in Mirpur
together with 6,59,995 Dogri speakers.
3. Out of this figure, 48,163 persons are form
Muzaffarabad (now in POK).
4. Gujari, the language of Gujars has been included with
Rajasthani.
5. Pahari, which is enumerated separately, is closely
connected with Gujari and is spoken in much the same areas.
6. Includes 1,55,595 persons in Muzaffarabad (now in POK).
7. Includes 2,36,713 persons in Poonch, Haveli, Mendhar.
8. Hindi and Urdu have been combined and enumerated as
Hindustani.
9. Nearly all (82,887 persons) are concentrated in
Mirpur.
10. Includes 7,785 persons in Baramulla (Gurez area).
11. Shina language is spoken chiefly in Gilgit area.
12. It is mainly spoken in Hunza, Nagar and Yasin.
Table 2
J&K: Major Linguistic Population Groups, 1961
Total Population of J&K, (1961 Census) = 35,60,976
Language |
J&K State |
Kashmir Province |
Jammu Province |
Ladakh District |
Kashmiri |
18 96,149 |
17,17,259 |
1,78,281 (Mainly in Doda) |
609 |
Dogri |
8,69,199 |
1,784 |
8,67,201 |
214 |
Gojri |
2,09,327 |
64,493 |
1,44,834 |
Nil |
Ladakhi |
49,450 |
79 |
42 |
49,829 |
Punjabi |
1,09,174 |
32,866 |
76,308 |
Nil |
Balti |
33,458 |
514 |
38 |
32,905 (Miainly in Kargil) |
Hindi |
22,323 |
2,494 |
19,868 |
61 |
Urdu |
12,445 |
3,504 |
8,941 |
Nil |
Dardi/Shina |
7,854 |
7,605 (Mainly in Gurez area of
Baramulla) |
30 |
219 |
Tibetan |
2,076 |
Nil |
148 |
1,899 |
Table 3
J&K: Major Linguistic Population Groups, 1971
Total population of J&K, (1971 Census) = 46,16,632
Language |
J&K State |
Kashmir Division |
Jammu Division |
Ladakh Division |
Kashmiri |
24,53,430 |
21,75,588 |
2,75,070 |
772 |
Dogri |
11,39,259 |
8,161 |
11,30,845 |
253 |
Hindi* (Gujari) |
6,95,375 |
1,80,837 |
5,14,177 |
361 |
Ladakhi |
59,823 |
1,446 |
1,562 |
56,815 |
Punjabi |
1,59,098 |
46,316 |
1,12,258 |
524 |
Lahanda (Pothwari) |
22,003 |
109 |
21,894 (Mainly in Rajauri) |
Nil |
Urdu |
12,740 |
4,521 |
8,209 |
10 |
Balti |
40,135 |
822 |
280 |
39,033 (Mainly in Kargil) |
Shina |
10,274 |
9,276 (Mainly in Gurez area of
Bramulla) |
251 |
747 |
Tibetan |
3,803 |
867 |
Nil |
2,936 |
* Gujari, the language of Gujars has been included with
Hindi.
Table 4
J&K: Major Linguistic Population Groups, 1981
Total population of J&K, (1981 Census) = 59,87,389
Language |
J&K State |
Kashmir Division |
Jammu Division |
Ladakh Division |
Kashmiri |
31,33,146 |
28,06,441 (Mainly in Doda Dist.) |
3,28,229 |
1,476 |
Dogri |
14,54,441 |
2,943 |
14,51,329 |
169 |
Hindi* (Gujari) |
10,12,808 |
2,55,310 (Mainly in Baramulla and
Kupwara Districts) |
7,67,344 (Mainly in Doda, Punch and
Rajauri Districts) |
155 |
Ladakhi |
71,852 |
471 |
1,190 |
70,191 |
Punjabi |
1,63,049 |
41,181 |
1,21,668 |
200 |
Lahanda (Pothwari) |
13,184 |
21 |
13,163 |
Nil |
Urdu |
6,867 |
3,830 |
3,019 |
18 |
Balti |
47,701 |
811 |
Nil |
46,890 (Mainly in Kargil) |
Shina (Dardi) |
15,017 |
12,159 (Mainly in Gurez area of
Baramula) |
Nil |
2,858 (Mainly in Dah Hanu) |
Tibetan |
4,178 |
796 (Mainly in Srinagar) |
Nil |
3,382 (Mainly in Leh Tehsil) |
* Gujari, the language of Gujars has been included with
Hindi.
The people of J&K State, whether Kashmiris, Dogras,
Gujars-Bakarwals, Ladakhis, Baltis, Dards, etc. have in all the censuses
unambiguously identified their indigenous languages as their 'mother-tongues'
thereby consolidating their respective ethno-linguistic and cultural identities.
This is particularly important in view of the fact that the Muslims of the State
have thus acted in a manner quite different from that of Muslims in most of the
Indiar states.
It is also in stark contrast to the experience in
Punjab, where Hindus though speaking Punjabi at home earlier claimed Hindi as
their mother tongue during the census operations. Similarly, the Muslims in
various Indian States such as Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala etc. who
registered local languages as their mother-tongues in 1951 Census, opted for
Urdu in 1961 and afterwards, thereby leading to a dramatic rise in the number of
Urdu speaking persons in India. Same is the case with the Muslims of Uttar
Pradesh, who registered their language as Hindustani in 1951 Census, but have
been claiming Urdu as their mother tongue subsequently. This demonstrates the
urge of the Muslims in other Indian states to identify themselves with Urdu
rather than with Hindustani (the basic substratum of Hindi and Urdu, it does not
have any communal and politicised connotation) or the indigenous mother tongues,
in a bid to consolidate themselves as a distinct collective group linked
together by common bond of religion and Urdu which they believe to be
representing their Muslim cultural identity. Clearly these Muslims have moved
away from regional towards the religious identity.
It is precisely for avoiding any such communal
polarisation between Hindus and Muslims on the issue of Hindi and Urdu
languages, that the J&K State Census authorities decided in 1941 to club
Hindi and Urdu together and use Hindustani. This, however, resulted in inflating
the number of persons claiming Hindi and Urdu speakers to 1,78,528 (mostly in
Jammu province). R.G. Wreford, the then Census Commissioner admits it in his
report, saying that "The figures for Hindustani are inflated as the result
of the Urdu-Hindi controversy. Propapanda was carried on during the Census by
the adherents of both parties to the dispute with the result that many Hindus
gave Hindi as their mother tongue and many Muslims gave Urdu quite contrary to
the facts in the great majority of cases. The dispute is largely political and
so to keep politics out of the Census, it was decided to lump Hindi and Urdu
together as Hindustani".
In the 1961, 1971 and 1981 censuses, usage of the term
'Hindustani' has been discarded in favour of separate enumeration for Hindi and
Urdu speaking persons. The 1961 Census, which has treated Hindi and Gujari
language separately, (unlike the 1971 and 1981 censuses, where Gujari in
included into Hindi), should be taken as authentic base for calculating the
number of persons claiming Hindi as their mother tongue. Yet there is no denying
the fact that though respective mother tongues are spoken universally by various
ethnic groups in their households or among themselves, the people of the State
are generally bilingual or even trilingual in some cases. Thus if a Kashmiri
uses his mother tongue within his group, he uses Urdu, Hindi or Hindustani in
his conversation with the people from Jammu Province, Ladakh division and from
the rest of India. Similarly, a Dogra would use Dogri within his group, Punjabi
with his counterparts from Punjab and Delhi and Hindi or Hindustani with others.
Ladakhis would use Ladakhi among themselves and Hindi, Urdu or Hindustani with
others. English has also become popular, due to its common usage in
administrative offices, trade, industry, and educational institutions.
The prevalence of Urdu as a link language is not only
due to its being the official language, but also due to its popularisation
through the publication of books, newspapers and periodicals in large numbers.
Besides, the close socio- economic contacts between the people of the State and
rest of India, plus the impact of tourism, modernisation and educational
development have contributed to the use of Urdu and Hindi in the State, in
addition to the mother- tongues.
The Census Report of 1941 for Jammu and Kashmir,
provides an insight into the language situation in the State before
independence, i.e. before a large chunk of the State in Mirpur, Muzaffarabad and
Frontier Districts (Baltistan, Astore, Gilgit etc.) was occupied by Pakistan in
1947-48. This area is not known as Pak-occupied Kashmir/Northern Areas. The 1941
Census has listed Kashmiri, Dogri, Punjabi, Rajasthani, Western Pahari, Balti,
Ladakhi, Shina/Dardi and Burushaski as the main languages, spoken in the State.
The 1941 census has followed the general scheme of classification, whereby Dogri
and Gujari have been included as dialects under Punjabi and Rajasthani
respectively, which is likely to create confusion to the non-discerning reader.
However, the Census has provided a solution by indicating the actual number of
Dogri and Punjabi speakers as 6,59,945 and 4,13,754 respectively. Whereas the
Dogri speakers were concentrated in Jammu, Udhampur, Kathua and Chenani Jagir
districts, most of the Punjabi speakers were settled mainly in Mirpur and also
in Muzaffarabad (48,163 persons). Similarly out of 82,993 Lahnda speakers
(including those speaking Pothawri dialect), 82,887 persons were concentrated in
Mirpur district.
Gujari, the language of Gujars and Bakerwals (now
declared as Scheduled Tribes), was included as a dialect under Rajasthani due to
its close affinities with that language. But Pahari which is closely connected
with Gujari and continues to be spoken in much the same areas, was enumerated
separately. Thus we have 2,83,741 Gujari speakers and 5,31,319 Western Pahari
speakers (including those speaking Bhadrawahi, Gaddi, Padari, Sarori dialects).
Reasi, Jammu, Poonch, Kaveli, Mandhar, Baramulla, Anantnag and Muzaffarabad
districts were shown as the main concentration points of Gujari and W. Pahari
speakers, thereby testifying to their widespread distribution throughout the
State. The subsequent Census Reports of 1961, 1971 and 1981 have removed this
anomaly of enumerating Gujari and Pahari separately. However, the Census reports
of 1971 and 1981 have followed a new anomalous practice of including Gujari (Rajasthani),
Bhadrawahi, Padri with Hindi. This has not only inflated the numbers of those
claiming Hindi as their mother tongue but also camouflaged the actual strength
of Gujari speakers, thereby causing disenchantment among this tribal community.
As most of these Hindi albeit Gujari speakers have been
shown as concentrated in Baramulla, Kupwara, Punch, Rajouri and Doda districts,
their Gujar identity becomes obvious. The 1961 census, which does not mix up
Hindi with Gujari, puts the number of Gujari speakers at 2,09,327 and that of
Hindi speakers at 22,323. Urdu is placed next with only 12,445 persons claiming
it their mother tongue.
Tables 1 to 4 make it amply clear that Kashmiri
commands the largest number of speakers, with Dogri at second and Gujari at
third positions respectively. The number of Punjabi speakers in 1961, 1971 and
1981 Census Reports, actually reflects the number of Sikhs who have maintained
their language and culture, and who are concentrated mainly in Srinagar, Budgam,
Tral, Baramulla (all in Kashmir Province), Udhampur and Jammu. In case of Ladakh,
several ethno-linguistic identities emerge on the basis of mother tongue and
area of settlement. Ladakhis (people of Buddhist dominated ladakh district and
Zangskar) have claimed Ladakhi, popularly known as Bodhi as their mother tongue.
Interestingly Tibetan language has been consistently identified as distinct
language/mother tongue in all the Census Reports under review, and it is spoken
by the small group of Tibetan refugees settled in Srinagar and Leh. As against
this, the Shia Muslims of Kargil have claimed Balti, another dialect of Tibetan
language. The Baltis of Kargil are separated by the Line of Actual Control from
their ethno-linguistic brothers in Baltistan area of 'Northern Areas' in
Pak-occupied Kashmir who also speak the sam. Balti dialect. There are some
Dardic speaking pockets in Gurez area of Baramulla in Kashmir, Dras and Da Hanu
in Ladakh. The people of Hurza, Nagar and Yasin in the 'Northern Areas' of
Pak-occupied Kashmir, speak the Burushaski language. The State of Jammu and
Kashmir thus presents a classic case of linguistic and ethno-religious
diversity.
Neglect of Mother Tongues
It is established that Kashmiri ranks first among the
mother tongues of the State commanding the largest number of speakers, with
Dogri in second and Gujari in third position, followed by Punjabi, Bodhi, Balti,
Shina/Dardi in succession. Whereas Kashmiri has been included in the VIII
schedule of the Constitution of India, the demands of similar treatment for
Dogri and Bodhi are yet to be conceded. Conscious of the ethno-linguistic
heterogeneity of the State, the 'New Kashmir' Programme adopted by the Jammu and
Kashmir National Conference under the stewardship of Sheikh Abdulla as early as
1944, had envisaged the declaration of Kashmiri, Dogri, Balti, Dardi, Punjabi,
Hindi and Urdu as the national languages of the State Urdu was to be the 'lingua
franca' of the State. It was also laid down that:
"The state shall foster and encourage the growth
and development of these languages, by every possible means, including the
following:
(1) The establishment of State Language Academy, where
scholars and grammarians shall work to develop the languages,
(a) by perfecting and providing scripts,
(b) by enriching them through foreign translations,
(c) by studying their history,
(d) by producing dictionaries and text books.
(2) The founding of State scholarships for these
languages.
(3) The fostering of local press and publications in
local languages."
The Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir has recognised Urdu
as the offficial language of the State, treating Kashmiri, Dogri, Balti, Dardi,
Punjabi Pahari and Ladakhi as regional languages. But the State Constitution has
not taken congnizance of the need "to protect the right of minorities to
conserve their distinctive language, script or culture; to provide adequate
facilities for instruction in the mother tongue, to the children of lmguistic
minorities", as has been explicitly provided in the Constitution of India
in Articles 29, 30 and 350.
What was laid down in the original manifesto of the
National Conference, has been fulfilled only to the extent of setting up of the
J&K Academy of Art, Culture and Languages. Circumstantial evidence indicates
that there has been an organised effort by the State political-bureaucratic
elite to stifle the growth of Kashmiri language and other local mother tongues.
It becomes obvious from the following facts:
(i) Teaching of Kashmiri has not been introduced at the
primary or secondary school levels in the State. Not only that, no textbooks
in Kashmiri are available even though a set of such books was prepared by
experts. The Post Graduate Department of Kashmiri has been created as a super
structure without any ground support at the primary and secondary levels. This
is despite the general desire among Kashmiri masses to have Kashmiri as a
medium of instruction particularly at the primary and middle levels of
education. This gets amply reflected in a survey, in which 83 per cent of the
respondents showed their preference for use of Kashmiri as a medium of
instruction at primary levels and 48 per cent preferred the same at middle
level of education, whereas 49 per cent wanted to have English at high or
higher secondary levels.
(ii) Notwithstanding the publication of hundreds of
newspapers and periodicals mostly in Urdu and some in English, hardly any
newspaper or periodical is published in any local language in the State. The
journal Sheeraza, which is brought out by the J&K Cultural Academy in
Kashmiri, Dogri, Gujari and Bodhi languages, has a limited circulation among
the literary circles. Local masses have to rely exclusively on Urdu and
English newspapers/periodicals published locally or coming from Punjab or
Delhi, though the people of the Valley would like to have Kashmiri newspapers.
A socio-linguistic survey in Kashmir revealed that 47 per cent of the
respondents reported their preference for local newspapers in Kashmiri
language. J&K State is perhaps the only Indian state where local language
press and publications are virtually absent.
(iii) Usage of Urdu has received official
patronage, it being the medium of instruction in primary and secondary levels.
Persi-Arabic script has been adopted for Kashmiri language. The functional
role of Kashmiri in the domain of written communication has been reduced to
minimum, as all personal letters, official correspondence etc. are written in
Urdu, English or Hindi languages. The Sharda script, though indigerous to
Kashmir, has been totally ignored. Not only that, the treasure of ancient MSS
in the Sharda script is decaying in various libraries/archives in J&K
State and needs immediate retrieval. Sharda script was used for preparing
horoscopes, though its usage is now restricted to a few practicing Brahmins.
With the result, this ancient tradition has gone into oblivion. Similarly, the
demands of ethno-religious minority of Kashmiri Hindus, presently living in
forced exile, for adopting Devnagri as an alternate script for Kashmiri
language have been ignored. With the result this sizeable minority of Kashmir,
has not only been deprived of access to the rich fund of Kashmiri language and
literature, but their right to preserve and promote their ancient cultural
heritage has also been denied. This is in clear contravention of the Article
29, 30 and 350 of Indian Constitution. On the other hand, the State government
has adopted Persi- Arabic script as an alternate script for Dogri and Punjabi
in addition to thereby displaying their motivated double standards. That
Devngari script has been in prevalence for Kashmiri is obvious from the
publication of several Kashmiri books/journals in this script. Not only that,
Maharaja Hari Singh of Jammu and Kashmir while conceding the demands of both
the Hindu and Muslim Communities, issued orders in late 1940 allowing the
usage of both Persian and Davnagri scripts in schools, even while the common
medium of instruction would be simple Urdu. Students were given the option of
choosing either of the two scripts for reading and writing.
(iv) During the past two decades or so, there have
been organised efforts by the Islamic fundamentalist sccial, cultural and
political organisations, often receiving assistance from foreign Muslim
countries, to saturate the Kashmiri language and culture with aggressive
revivalistic overtones. It is not a mere coincidence that all the names of
various militant organisations in Kashmir, titles of office-bearers, their
slogans and literature are in the highly Persianised-Arabicised form.
Similarly, names of hundreds of villages and towns in Kashmir were changed
from ancient indigenous Sanskritic form to Persian/Islamic names, by the State
government. To quote a Kashmiri writer, "Language was subverted through
substitution of Pan-Islamic morphology and taxonomy for the Kashmiri one.
Perfectly Islamic person names like Ghulam Mohammed, Ghulam Hassan, Abdul Aziz,
Ghulam Rasool which were abundantly common in Kashmir were substituted by
double decker names which were indistinguishable from Pakistani and Afghan
names". In this manner linguistic and cultural subversion was carried out
to "subsume the Kashmiri identity of Kashmir by a Pan-Islamic
identity" after "tampering with the racial and historical memory of
an ethnic sub-nationality through a Pan-Islamic ideal". Kashmir was thus
projected as "an un-annexed Islamic enclave" which should secede
from the secular and democratic India.
(v) Films Division of the Government of India,
which used to dub films in 13 Indian languages including Kashmiri for
exhibition among the local masses, stopped doing so at the instance of the
State administration. They were instead asked to do it in simple Urdu.
(vi) That the State bureaucracy even foiled the
attempts by Progress Publishers, Moscow, to start translation and publication
of Russian classics in Kashmir, is established by the following information
provided to this author by Raisa Tugasheva who was actively associated with
this programme.
"It was in 1972 that the Progress
Publishers, Moscow (successor to Foreign Language Publishing House which
published in 13 languages) decided to start publication of Kashmiri
translations of Russian literature. Some Urdu knowing scholars were recruited
for the task. Ms. Raisa rugasheva (who had worked as Urdu announcer at
Tashkent Radio for twenty years) was made Head and Editor-in-Chief of the
Kashmiri Section of Progress Publishers. Besides two Assistant editors and one
Kashmiri Muslim student at Moscow were associated with the Project. At the
first instance, a few books of Russian literature were taken up and later
translated into Kashmiri. One assistant editor Lena was sent to Kashmir for
further study. When a delegation of Progress Publishers visited Kashmir to
survey the potential and prospects of circulation of these books, their
proposal met with a hostile State government response. It was found that the
State administrative machinery was against publication and circulation of
Kashmiri translations of Russian books. With the result the whole project was
quietly wound up".
(vii) Central government grants provided to the
State Education Department from time to time for development of Kashmiri
language and literature have either been spent on other heads or allowed to
lapse. Similarly the 100 per cent financial assistance provided by the centre
for translation of Constitution of India into Kashmiri was not availed of.
Instead these funds were diverted to promotion of Urdu which was misleadingly
projected as the regional language of the State.
(viii) Dogri which is spoken in Jammu region
and the adjoining areas of Himachal Pradesh and Punjab, has been recognised as
one of the regional languages in the VI Schedule of the State's Constitution.
Though the Sahitya Academy started giving its awards for Dogri in 1970, the
people of Jammu have been demanding inclusion of Dogri in the VIII Schedule of
Constitution of India. When in mid-1992 the Central government was taking
steps to include Nepali, Konkani and Manipuri in the VIII Schedule, the Dogri
Sangharsh Morcha started a movement in Jammu pressing for acceptance of their
demand. Though the matter was raised in Parliament, nothing happened. The
Jammu people point to the rich literary heritage of Dogri, its wide prevalence
in J&K, Himachal Pradesh and Punjab and also the usage of easy Devnagri
script for this language, and their contribution to maintain national
integrity, as sufficient grounds for inclusion of Dogri in the VIII Schedule.
They are peeved at the discriminatory attitude of the Central government in
not accepting their demand which they allege to be under the political
interference of the Kashmiri politicians.
(ix) In Ladakh too Urdu was imposed as a medium
of instruction, though the majority of people there speak and write Ladakhi (Bodhi),
a dialect of Tibetan and which has a script of its own. It was during the
latter years of Dogra rule that Urdu was introduced as the official language
throughout the State including Ladakh. Even at that time the Ladakhi Buddhists
had resented the 'infliction of Urdu' as a medium of instruction in primary
schools. The report of the Kashmir-Raj Bodhi Maha Sabha, Srinagar (1935)
provides an insight into the sharp reaction evoked by this practice among the
local people. It states:
"The infliction of Urdu-to them a
completely foreign tongue-on the Ladakh Buddhists as a medium of instruction
in the primary stage is a pedagogical atrocity which accounts, in large
measure for their aversion to going to school. Nowhere in the world are boys
in the primary stage taught through the medium of a foreign tongue. And so,
the Buddhist boy whose mother tongue is Tibetan must struggle with the
complicacies of the Urdu script and acquire a knowledge of this alien tongue
in order to learn the rudiments of Arithmetic, Geography, and what not....
This deplorable and irrational practice is being upheld in face of the fact
that printed text books for all Primary school subjects do exist in Tibetan
and have been utilized with good results by the Moravian Mission at Leh".
Ironically even after the end of Dogra Raj, Urdu continues to be the medium of
instruction. Though Ladakhi and Arabic have also been introduced in government
schools alongwith English, private Islamic schools teach Urdu and Arabic only.
This educational policy has led to building up of segmented religious
identities as against a secular one, thereby polarising the traditional and
tolerant Ladakhi society on communal lines.
(x) Instead of recognising Gujari, the mother
tongue of more than six lakh Gujars, the Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir has
included Pahari, as one of the regional languages in its VI schedule. This
anomalous situation is a result of the impression that Gujari is part of
Pahari, though it is actually more akin to Rajasthani. And the Census or 1941
has included Gujari under Rajasthani. Whereas the subsequent Censuses of 1961,
1971 and 1981 have not mentioned Pahari at all. This is one of the
contributory factors that have led to the Gujari-Pahari controversy, which has
been explained in the following pages. Gujars of Jammu and Kashmir have been
demanding their identification and enumeration by the Census authorities on
the basis of their tribal rather than linguistic identity, so as to avoid
overlapping with the Paharis and the consequent underestimation of their
population.
(xi) Balti, a dialect of the Tibetan language,
used to be written in the Tibetan script before the advent of Islam in
Baltistan in the sixteenth century. Numerous rock inscriptions which still
exist in Baltistan (in Pak- occupied Kashmir), are a living testimony to this
fact. Following the conversion of Baltis to Islam, indigenous Tibetan script
for Balti language was discarded "as profane". Instead, Persian
script was introduced even though it did not "suit the language due to
certain phonological differences". But after Baltistan was occupied by
Pakistan in 1948, Urdu has prevailed in the area. With the result the
indigenous Balti language has been further weakened due to heavy influence of
Persian and Urdu. The same is true of Baltis living in the Indian State of
Jammu and Kashmir. Baltis in Pakistan are deeply disturbed over the loss of
their inherited culture, particularly during the past two decades due to
"onslaught of religious fanaticism". This change is ascribed to the
Islamic Revolution in Iran, following which Maulvis flush with money entered
the area and banned singing, dancing and all forms of traditional cultural
activities. Interestingly, the Shia Muslims in the Kargil area of Ladakh, who
too speak the Balti language and share same culture with Baltis of Baltistan,
have been subjected to similar change. They have been allowed to be swayed
under the pernicious influence of Mullahs and Mujtahids, most of whom receive
theological training and support from Iran.
These mujtahids, have stripped the festivals and
ceremonies in Kargil of their traditional music and fanfare. The traditional
musicians-Doms, who used to play drums and wind pipe instruments on all festive
occasions, have been rendered jobless. This situation has resulted in the
destruction of rich folk, linguistic, literary and cultural heritage of Baltis.
The only saving grace is that most of the Balti folk literature is still
preserved in the oral unwritten tradition. Besides, there is an organised effort
inside Pak- occupied Baltistan, by Balti intellectuals led by Syed Abbas Kazmi
to revive the Balti heritage including its Tibetan script. The Baltistan
Research Centre, Skardo is doing a commendable job on this subject. Similar
efforts need to be initiated by J&K Cultural Academy inside Kargil area.
Foregoing discussion of the state of affairs of mother
tongues in Jammu and Kashmir State throws up important political issues. It
becomes clear that despite the local urge to preserve and promote their mother
tongues, whether it is Kashmiri, Dogri, Gujari, Bodhi or Balti, the same have
been denied their due place. This has been done as part of the calculated policy
of the Muslim bureaucracy and political leadership to subvert the indigenous
linguistic and ethno-cultural identities which inherit a composite cultural
heritage. Thus a supra national Muslim identity has been sought to be imposed in
different regions of the State, which essentially are different language and
culture areas. Simultaneously a whispering compaign was launched in Kashmir
alleging the central government's apathy towards Kashmiri language, which is,
however, belied by facts. Apart from inclusion of Kashmiri in the VIII Schedule,
Sahitya Academy has been giving awards for Kashmiri right from 1956 though it
started doing so for Dogri only in 1970. What is needed now is to remove the
existing imbalances and introduce Sahitya Academy awards for Gujari, Ladakhi (Bodhi)
and Balti, besides officially recognising Devnagari as alternate script for
Kashmiri.
Conclusion
The language geography of the State has changed after
1947 when a large chunk of the State was occupied by Pakistan, what is now known
as Pak-occupied Kashmir/ Northern Areas. The new ground situation is that all
the Kashmiri, Dogri, Gujari and Ladakhi speaking areas falls within the Northern
Areas. Yet some small pockets of Dardi speaking people-Buddhist Brukpas in Da
Hanu area of Ladakh, people of Dras (Ladakh) and Gurez (Baramulla) lie within
the Indian part of Jammu and Kashmir. Similarly, all the Pothawri (Lahanda)
speaking areas in Poonch, Mirpur etc. remain within the Pak-occupied Kashmir. As
regards the Baltis, they are divided between those living in Kargil in Indian
Ladakh and across the Line of Actual Control in Baltistan (Northern Areas). From
within the Kashmiri speaking community, the entire Kashmiri Hindu minority of
more than three lakhs has been forced out of the valley in 1980-90 by the
Islamist militants. Thus this significant and indigenous minority community has
been deprived of its ancient habitat and language culture area in the Kashmir
valley. Given the precarious condition of these displaced persons living in
forced exile in various parts of India and struggling for survival, their
language and culture are likely to be the worst casualty of their
ethnic-religious cleansing. The question of resettlement of this displaced
minority in their ancient birthland in a manner that ensures their ethnic-
linguistic and territorial homogeneity and adequate
constitutionaliadministrative safeguards for protection of their human rights,
is directly linked to the permanent solution of the Kashmir imbroglio.
A study of the language demography of Jammu and Kashmir
State establishes the fact that the Lahnda (Pothwari) speaking area falls almost
entirely across the Line of Actual Control (LAC) in Pak-occupied Kashmir. That
the LAC on the western side coincides with the specific language culture area,
provides a natural permanence to the Line of Actual Control on ethno-linguistic
lines in this sector. This should provide a key to finding lasting solution to
vexed Kashmir problem between India and Pakistan. However, this is not true of
Balti speaking area, which remains divided by the Line of Actual Control between
Kargil area of Jammu and Kashmir in India and Baltistan region of Pak-occupied
Kashmir. That there is a renewed urge among the Baltis in Pak-occupied Kashmir
to revive their ancient Balti language and heritage only demonstrates their
cultural roots in Ladakh.
Regarding the evolution and affinities of various
mother tongues in Jammu and Kashmir, it is established that most of the
languages are rooted in or have close affinities with the Indo-Aryan languages.
Whereas Dogri is closely related to Punjabi, Gujari is akin to Rajasthani.
Grierson's theory of Kashmiri belonging to the Dardic branch of languages has
been disputed by the insider view emanating from Kashmir and e]sewhere. Most of
the linguistic researches conducted in Kashmir during the past forty years, have
established that Kashmiri bears close resemblance to Sanskritic languages,
thereby testifying to the close civilisational contacts and ties between Kashmir
and India since ancient times. Grierson who has misleadingly adopted the
religious distinction between 'Hindu Kashmiri' and 'Muslim Kashmiri' has
actually followed the colonial approach towards non-European sccieties.
Ironically Grierson's theory has been used as premier by an American geographer,
J.E. Schwartzberg has advocated the merger of Kashmir valley with the Dardic
speaking areas of Pak- occupied Kashmir on the basis of lmguistic and cultural
affinity. Grierson's theory has since been disputed. Besides, the fact remains
that the people of Kashmir valley are not only linguistically different from
those living across the Line of Control in Pak-occupied Kashmir, but also have
different cultural moorings and social ethos. Though Ladakhi and Balti belong to
the Tibeto-Burman group of languages, the presence of Sanskritic impact among
the Garkuns of Ladakh is a living example of the extent of Indian cultural
presence in this remote area. Given the importance of the subject, it is
incumbent upon the linguists and anthropologists in India to unravel the
mysteries of evolution and affinities of various mother tongues of Jammu and
Kashmir State, in the broader context of race movement and civilisational
evolution in north and north western India.
Kashmiri is the main language spoken in the State, its
spatial distribution being limited to the central valley of Kashmir and some
parts of Doda. Though Kashmiri has no 'functional role as a written language'
now, it is "overwhelmingly the language of personal and in-group
communication. It is the medium of dreams, mental arithmetic and reflection, of
communication within the family, with friends and in market places, in places of
worship etc.'' According to a survey, the Kashmiris view their language as
"an integral part of their identity" and want it to be accorded its
due role in the fields of education, mass-media and administration. The neglect
of mother tongues by the State is the most salient language issue in Jammu and
Kashrnir, and the earlier it is remedied, the better. However, the only silver
lining is ihat both Kashmiri Hindus and Muslims have identified Kashmiri as
their mother tongue.
Though Pahari has not been enumerated as a separate
language in the J&K State Census Reports of 1961, 1971 and 1981, of late
there have been demands for grant of some concessions to 'Paharis' in the State.
The Pahari versus Gujar issue is a potential source of ethnic conflict as both
the Pahari and Gujar interests are in conflict with each other. Both the Pahari
and Gujar identities overlap in certain aspects particularly their hill
settlement pattern and some common language features. The grant of Scheduled
Tribe status on 19th April 1991 by the central government, entitles the Gujars-the
third largest community in the State, to preferential treatment in government
services, educational, professional and technical education etc. Gujars also
claim propotionate representation in the State Assembly. The non- Gujar Muslims
of the State have been peeved at the conferment of Scheduled Tribe status and
its benefits to the Gujars. They have now demanded similar concession and the
privileges associated with it for the 'Paharis' of Rajouri, Poonch, Kupwara and
Baramulla districts, i.e., where the Gujars are in sizeable numbers. The central
government decision to meet the demand of Gujars has also evoked some reaction
from the local press. The new 'Pahari' demand has been backed by the valley
dominated political and bureaucratic Muslim elite, which has succeeded in
persuading the State Governor to take a few steps in this direction. On 17 May
1992, the non-Gujar 'Pahari Board' was set up, with eight Kashmiri Muslims,
eight Rajput Muslims, two Syeds and four non-Muslims as its members. On 18
December 1993, the State Governor, General K. V. Krishna Rao issued a statement
urging the central government to declare the Paharis as Scheduled Tribes.
Obviously, the J&K State administration is trying
to construct new identities such as 'Paharis', in a bid to undermine the Gujars
and their ethno-linguistic identity in the areas where they are dominant. That
is why the demands of 'Paharis' of Rajouri, Poonch, Kupwara and Baramulla,
(where Gujars are concentrated) are raised, whereas the backward and neglected
hill people of Ramban, Kishtwar, Padar and Bhadarwah, who speak distinct
dialects of Rambani, Kishtwari, Padari and Bhadarwahi, have been excluded from
the purview of the so called 'Pahari'. This is a subtle move to deprive the
Gujars of their numerical advantage and fully marginalise them in the political,
administrative and other institutional structures of the State.
The existing spatial distribution of Gujar speakers,
does provide some sort of linguistic territorial homogeneity, which however,
needs to be further consolidated to help in preservation and promotion of Gujari
language and ethno- cultural heritage and fulfilling their socio-economic and
political aspirations within the State. Inclusion of Gujari as one of the
regional languages in the VI schedule of state's Constitution and the Sahitya
Academy awards for Gujari writers, are basic steps that need to be taken
urgently.
That the Gujars are concentrated in specific border
belts surrounding the main Kashmiri speaking area, which mostly fali within the
Indian side of Line of Actual Control, is yet another aspect of political
importance. It is not only a physical obstacle in the way of attaining the goals
of the ongoing secessionist movement based on Pan-Islamic- Kashmiri identities,
it also demonstrates that barring some possible minor adjustments here and
there, the present LAC provides the best possible solution to the Kashmir
problem.
As already stated, all the Census reports have made a
clear distinction between the Ladakhi (Bhotia) and Tibetan speaking persons in
Ladakh, former being indigenous Ladakhis and the latter being Tibetan refugee
settlers. Interestingly, various political activist groups such as
"Himalayan Committee for Action on Tibet", "Himalayan Buddhist
Cultural Association", "Tibet Sangharsh Samiti" etc. which have
been spreaheading in India the campaign for Tibet's independence, and have
opened their branches in various Himalayan States of India, have been demanding
the inclusion of Bhotia language in the VIII Schedule of the Indian
Constitution. At the same time, there have been sustained efforts by the Tibetan
scholars at Dharamshala or abroad, towards preparing a unified system of Tibetan
language so that the same script, dialect etc. is applied to all the Bhotia/Tibetan
speaking peoples whether in Indian Himalayas or elsewhere. This raises the
question of Tibetanisation of society, culture and politics of the Indian
Himalayas partieularly in Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh,
Kalimpong, Darjeeling etc. It has been noticed that Tibetan refugees living in
these areas never use local dialect and seek to exercise their cultural hegemony
over the local Buddhist inhabitants. Due to divergent modes of economic activity
being followed by the Tibetan refugees and the indigenous Buddhists in this
Himalayan region, the former being engaged in marketing and industrial
activities and the latter being involved in primary agrarian economy, there have
been social conflicts between these two culturally similar groups with the
locals viewing the Tibetan refugees as exploiters. Such a conflict has been
experienced in Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh etc. It becomes
imperative for the concerned government and non-government agencies to ensure
that the indigenous Bhotia/Ladakhi and even Balti ethno-linguistic heritage is
preserved and promoted.
State government's policy towards local mother tongues
including Kashmiri, reflects the political dynamics of Muslim majoritarianism,
in which supra-national religious ethnicity has been artifically superimposed
over the linguistic ethnicity. This has been done with the object of bringing
Kashmiri Muslims closer to the Muslim Ummah in the subcontinent, and
particularly with the adjoining Islamic State of Pakistan. This task has been
carried forward by numerous Islamic political, social and cultural institutions
particularly the Jamat-i-Islami, Ahl-e-Hadis, Anjuman Tableegh-i-Islam etc. and
the madrassahs or even public schools run by these organistions, all of which
have been preaching and promoting Islamic world view both in political, social
and cultural affairs. With the result a firm ideological base has been prepared
to mould the political and cultural views of Kashmiri Muslims on religious lines
rather than ethno- linguistic/cultural basis, thereby negating the idnigenous
secular and composite cultural heritage. The same thing has happened in
Pak-occupied Kashmir (including Northern Areas), where Urdu-the national
language of Pakistan, has been imposed and popularised, and local mother
tongues- Pothwari, Khowar, Burushaski, Dardi/Shina and Balti remain neglected.
Whereas adoption of such a policy by the Islamic Republic of Pakistan is
understandable, it is quite ironical and unthinkable as to how such a state of
affairs has been al]owed in Jammu and Kashmir State, part of the secular and
democratic Republic of India which has otherwise provided specific
constitutional safeguards for promotion of mother-tongues and protection of
rights of linguistic and cultural minorities.
It is surprising that the neglect of Kashmiri has never
been a theme of unrest and anti-Indian movement in Kashmir. It is mainly because
the Kashmiri Muslims have been swayed by their intellectual elite and political
leaders of all hues (whether in power or out of it), most of whom have been
educated at the Aligarh Muslim University, thereby imbibing the spirit of
Aligarh movement which regards Urdu as the symbol of Muslim cultural identity.
This policy is derived from the Muslim League strategy adopted so successfully
by M.A. Jinnah, "for political mobilization of the Muslim Community around
the symbols of Muslim identification-Islam, Urdu and the new slogan of
Pakistan". that explains why primacy has been given to Islam instead of
language, thereby consolidating the religious divide between Kashmiri Muslims
and Hindus who otherwise inherit same language, habitat and way of life. True
spirit of Kashmiriat can be restored only after giving rightful place to the
indigenous Kashmiri language and culture. Besides steps need to be taken to
promote other mother tongues of the state-Dogri, Gujari, Bodhi (Ladakhi) and
Balti. Whereas the case of Dogri for inclusion in VIII Schedule of Constitution
of India needs to be considered favourably, Sahitya Academy should give awards
for literary works in Gujari and Bodhi as is done by it for Maithili and
Rajasthani which are not listed in the VIII Schedule. Devnagri should be
recognised as alternate script for Kashmiri language which will meet the long
standing demand of the sizeable ethno-religious minority of Kashmiri Hindus. The
Linguistic Survey of India and the Census Commissioner of India need to review
Grierson's classification and evolve a suitable enumeration code and proper
classification marks for various languages and mother tongues prevalent in Jammu
and Kashmir, so that the linguistic and cultural aspirations of numerous ethnic-
linguistic groups in the State are duly reflected and protected.
Jammu, Kashmir & Ladakh
Ethno-Linguistic Areas
Legend:
Kishtwari/Poguli, Kashmiri, Dogri, Gojri, Ladakhi, Balti,
Dardi/Shina,
Burshaski, Punjabi/Lahenda/Pothawari, Rambani/Bhaderwahi/Siraji,
Kashmiri/Gujari/Pahari
About the Author:
K. Warikoo (born in Srinagar, 1951) is
Associate Professor of Central Asian Studies, School of International
Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. His major publications
include:
1. Central Asia and Kashmir: A Study in the Context
of Anglo-Russian Rivalry;
2. Ethnicity and Politics in Central Asia;
3. Afghanistan Factor in Central and South Asian
Politics;
4. Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh: A Comprehensive
Bibliography;
5. Central Asia: Emerging New Order, and
6. Society and Culture in the Himalayas. |
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